All perfect praise be to Allah the Lord of the Worlds. May His peace and blessings be upon Prophet Mohammad and upon all his family and companions.

This research is a historical one, as the rulings of Islamic law are not the only factor influencing the interactions between Islamic countries, let alone their dealings with others. However, these are Sharia rulings that must be known, regardless of whether they are implemented or not.

Regarding this topic and others, we consider the ideal and correct situation to be what was the case during the time of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs after him. Below are general benefits on this subject:

1- The fundamental Islamic perspective is that all people are brothers. Allah The Most Exalted Said (What means): "O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted." [Al-Hujurat/13].

2- "Every newborn is born in a state of Fitrah, and then his parents make him a Jew, Christian, or a Zoroastrian." This is what the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said, meaning that if people were left to their natural disposition, they would recognize their Creator.

3- The world has enough space and provisions for everyone. Allah The Almighty Says (What means): "And there is no creature on earth but that upon Allah is its provision, and He knows its place of dwelling and place of storage. All is in a clear book." [Hud/6]. Therefore, there is no need for people to fight over sustenance.

4- Humans are under the care and attention of Allah The Most Exalted:

A. Allah created humans in the best form. As stated (What means): "We have certainly created man in the best of stature." [At-Tin/4].

B. He bestowed upon them innumerable blessings whereas He Said (What means): "And We will surely settle you upon the earth after them. That is for those who fear My position and fear My threat." [Ibrahim/14].

C. Before birth, humans have rights that must be respected by the parents and society.

D. After birth, the rights of breastfeeding, mercy, and care, compared to other animals.

E. The instinct for creativity, which has continuously developed and improved human life circumstances.

5- There are matters that a person cannot fully understand just by thinking, including:

A. Belief in Allah, who created him, and understanding His attributes.

B. How to properly interact with the Creator and with others.

C. Understanding human brotherhood.

6- For this purpose, Allah sent messengers, culminating with Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), who called for:

A. Monotheism (Tawheed)

This is the greatest truth that must be known. Evidence for it is established in the Quran, it states (What means): "O people, an example is presented, so listen to it. Indeed, those you invoke besides Allah will never create [as much as] a fly, even if they gathered together for that purpose. And if the fly should take away from them a [tiny] thing, they could not recover it from it. Weak are the pursuer and pursued." [Al-Hajj/73].The hallmark of divinity is creation from nothing and the ability to do all things.

This closes the door on those who claim divinity, such as Pharaoh, Nimrod, and others, who exploit people with false claims of godhood. Thus, when the Prophet said to the people, "Say: There is no deity but Allah, and you will succeed," those who benefited from polytheism and the existence of idols opposed him. Idol worship brought them unlawful wealth. They said, "Has he made the gods [only] one God? Indeed, this is a curious thing."

B. Belief in the Hereafter

This is another undeniable truth that necessitates preparation. It fosters God-consciousness and eliminates oppression and aggression. Allah Says (What means): "And fear a Day when you will be returned to Allah. Then every soul will be compensated for what it earned, and they will not be wronged." [Al-Baqarah/281]

When the Prophet (peace be upon him) called for this, oppressors who abused others resisted, saying: "When we have become bones and crumbled particles, will we [truly] be resurrected as a new creation?"

C. Belief in the common origin of humanity

This signifies equality among people, as the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: "You are all from Adam, and Adam is from dust."

D. He called them to justice — which is the ruling of Allah — as He is Most Knowledgeable about what benefits His creation. All legal systems claim to seek the welfare of humanity, but those who benefited from the rule of tyranny and the prioritization of certain interests opposed him.

In the beginning, the verses were revealed commanding patience and endurance of harm. Then, by Allah's command, the Prophet (peace be upon him) worked to establish a political entity to protect Islam and implement its laws, leading to the migration to Medina.

In Medina, all the rulings began to be implemented in detail, revealed in accordance with the circumstances.

Faced with this new reality (the Islamic State), people fell into different categories:

1- A Muslim: This includes anyone who testifies that there is no deity but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. Such a person is considered a brother equal to every other Muslim, with respect and regard for individual competencies. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said: "Whoever prays as we pray, faces our Qiblah, and eats from our slaughtered animals, he is a Muslim."

2- A non-Muslim citizen (commonly referred to as a Dhimmi): This person lives under the protection of Allah and His Messenger. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said: "Whoever kills a Mu’ahid (a person under a pact of protection) will not smell the fragrance of Paradise, though its fragrance can be perceived from a distance of forty years." [Al-Bukhari]. They are granted freedom concerning their beliefs but are subject to the general Islamic legal system in worldly matters such as trade, business, and partnerships.

3- A temporary resident (Musta’min): This is someone who enters the state for a specific need with the state’s permission or through an authorized representative. Allah Says (What means): "And if any of the polytheists seeks your protection, then grant him protection so that he may hear the words of Allah. Then deliver him to his place of safety. That is because they are a people who do not know." [At-Tawbah/86]. This individual is also secure in their person and property until they leave the jurisdiction of the Islamic state.

4- Diplomats: These individuals have immunity. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said to the two envoys of Musaylimah: "Were it not for the fact that envoys are not to be killed, I would have struck your necks."

5- Combatants: These are subject to capture and potential execution. Allah Says (What means): "So when you meet those who disbelieve, strike their necks until you have inflicted slaughter upon them. Then secure their bonds, and either [confer] favor afterward or ransom [them] until the war lays down its burdens. That [is the command]. And if Allah had willed, He could have taken vengeance upon them Himself, but [He ordered armed struggle] to test some of you by means of others. And those who are killed in the cause of Allah—never will He waste their deeds." [Muhammad/4].

As for nations, their relations with the Islamic state are as follows:

First: Nations at war with Islam. The relationship with such nations is based on the following principles:

A. Invitation to embrace Islam as both a faith and a way of life. If they accept, they become our brothers, with the same rights and responsibilities as us. Their lands would be considered part of the Islamic state, as was the case with the lands of the Romans and Persians.

B. Invitation to accept Islam as a system of governance while allowing them to retain their beliefs. In this case, their lands would also be considered part of the Islamic state.

C. If they refuse, combat is pursued until Allah judges between us.

Second: Treaty Nations. These are nations with which the Islamic state has established a truce, suspending hostilities until the agreed period ends. Allah Says (What means): "Except for those idolaters with whom you have made a treaty and who have not subsequently failed you in anything or supported anyone against you; so fulfill their treaty until their term has ended. Indeed, Allah loves the righteous." [At-Tawbah/4]

This truce must have a defined duration.

If treachery or betrayal is suspected, the treaty should be explicitly annulled. Allah also States (What means): "But if you fear treachery from a people, then break off the treaty with them, openly and fairly. Verily, Allah does not love the treacherous." [Al-Anfal/58]

Such was the case between the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the people of Mecca after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

This approach characterized the prophetic era, the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, and the early Umayyad period. Later, relationships with other nations became predominantly peaceful unless aggression was initiated by the other party. This shift was due to internal factors such as the expansion of the state, internal challenges, and increased indulgence in worldly desires.

In All Cases, There Are Other Relationships with Nations, Such As:

1. Trade Relations: It is permissible to engage in trade with other nations, except for dealings that would assist them in waging war against us. For instance, selling weapons to hostile nations is strictly prohibited.

2. Cultural Relations: These relations have no restrictions regarding worldly matters that facilitate human life on Earth. We can teach and learn from others, as long as we safeguard our faith and beliefs. Historically, many were positively influenced by Islamic culture, though in modern times, Muslims have been significantly influenced by others.

3. Industrial Relations: Industrial collaboration, such as in medicine, engineering, and other scientific fields, is also unrestricted, provided it benefits humanity and does not compromise Islamic principles.

The Current Situation in Muslim Lands:

1. Division Among Muslim Nations: Muslims no longer form a single unified entity. Instead, they are divided into nations, sometimes in conflict with one another, and at best, maintaining friendly relations. At times, their relationships with non-Muslim nations are better than with fellow Muslim nations. Ideally, the Islamic Ummah should exist as a unified political entity, as Allah Says (What means): "And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided. And remember the favor of Allah upon you—when you were enemies, and He brought your hearts together and you became, by His favor, brothers. And you were on the edge of a pit of the Fire, and He saved you from it. Thus does Allah make clear to you His verses that you may be guided." [Al-Imran/103]. Despite this division, every Muslim feels part of a greater whole, and this sentiment may grow until the unity of the Islamic Ummah is realized.

2. Occupation of Muslim Lands: Many parts of the Muslim world are under various forms of occupation—whether military, political, economic, or cultural.

3. Development of Islamic Strength: The internal strength of the Islamic world is still in a state of growth and has not yet reached full maturity or self-sufficiency.

4. Global Interdependence: Nations worldwide have become heavily interdependent, with none able to fully function in isolation from others.

5. Threat of Modern Warfare: The danger posed by modern weaponry is immense, characterized by unprecedented levels of destruction and rapid targeting capabilities. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) described such times, saying:

"Like the swiftness of birds and the dreams of predatory beasts."

All of this underscores the necessity of reevaluating international Islamic relations in light of modern circumstances.

If harmonious relations among Muslims are realized, this will compel other nations to respect them. The greatest asset of Muslims is their faith, and there is no shame in holding firmly to it. Furthermore, their right to liberate their homelands is a legitimate one, recognized by all systems and laws.

In many instances, such discussions aim to justify the current reality. However, this is a mistake because we are living in an exceptional situation.